Resilient City

by David R. Godschalk

This paper proposes a comprehensive strategy of urban hazard mitigation aimed at the creation of resilient cities, able to withstand both types of threats. The paper reviews hazard mitigation practice, defines a resilient city, considers the relationship between resilience and terrorism, and discusses why resilience is important and how to apply its principles to physical and social elements of cities. Contending that current hazard mitigation policy, practice, and knowledge fail to deal with the unique aspects of cities under stress, the paper recommends a major resilient cities initiative, including expanded urban systems research, education and training, and increased collaboration among professional groups involved in city building and hazard mitigation.


A resilient city is a sustainable network of physical systems and human communities. Physical systems are the constructed and natural environmental components of the city. They include its built roads, buildings, infrastructure, communications, and energy facilities, as well as its waterways, soils, topography, geology, and other natural systems. In sum, the physical systems act as the body of the city, its bones, arteries, and muscles. During a disaster, the physical systems must be able to survive and function under extreme stresses. If enough of them suffer breakdowns that can not be repaired, losses escalate and recovery slows. A city without resilient physical systems will be extremely vulnerable to disasters.

Futurist theorist Harold Foster ~1997 has proposed 31 principles for achieving resilience. He organized them according to several categories: general systems, physical, operational, timing, social, economic, and environmental. According to Foster, resilient general systems are independent, diverse, renewable, and functionally redundant, with reserve capacity achieved through duplication, interchangeability, and interconnections. The public and private organizations of a resilient city would both plan ahead and act spontaneously. The city would have strong central governance, as well as vital private sector and nongovernmental institutions. Its leaders would be aware of the hazards it faces, but not afraid to take risks. They would eschew simple command and control leadership, preferring to develop networks of leadership and initiative. They would set goals and objectives, but be prepared to adapt these in light of new information and learning. They would recognize that the quest for resiliency is an ongoing long-term effort.

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